📖 TOEFL Reading Pre-Test
SKPI Program at UPMS Nganjuk
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reading
Published: 02.39
Sabtu, 08 Agustus 2026
Senin, 20 April 2026
Published: 21.24
Senin, 13 April 2026
Bab 18: Reduction of Adverb Clauses
Published: 18.21
Selasa, 12 Oktober 2021
Language Criteria for Assessing Grammars
Published: 05.28
A.
Four Fundamental Language Abilities of Speakers
1. Ability to produce and comprehend Sentences with
no limit as to length.
e.g. The cute little girl who could play baseball very well loved her kitten so much that she put it in her backpack so that she could take it with her everywhere.
We could add more words at various position in the sentence. Actually,
there is no limit, to making the sentence longer.
2. Ability to produce and comprehend an unlimited number
of sentences.
How many sentences can there be in a language? Well, we can derive this
answer from the fact established above, i.e., there is no fixed length to a
sentence. We can always create another sentence by making a prior sentence
longer or by making another sentence that is different from any other. So we can conclude that there is no fixed number of sentences which
a speaker can produce or comprehend.
3. Ability to produce and comprehend novel sentences
Speakers can produce and comprehend sentences that are new (novel) in the
sense that they have never encountered such sentences before. It is not likely.
4. Ability to Produce and Comprehend Grammatical Sentences.
This is the ability to look at the sentence such as “The girl loved her kitten so much that she put in her backpack” is not grammatical
B.
Explaining the Four Abilities with Behaviorist, Psychological
and Structural Linguistic Theories
1.
Nobody's
Whole Sentence Theory.
Nobody's whole Sentence Theory is a very simple and clear inadequate
theory. Basically, according to this theory, a person learns a whole sentence.
They do so by memorizing every sentence that they hear, along with its
surroundings so that sentences may have meaning. In a simple way, it is like
how a child has to learn a language using stimulus like objects, events and
etc. This is to establish the meaning to what they have learned so that it they
can remember it forever.
2.
Watson's Word Association Theory,
Watson Theory makes two essential claims about what language speakers learn:
a.
Speakers learn a number of words and each word
consists of around form which connects to a meaning. The meaning derives from
relating to objects and events in the environment, e.g. the sound form 'boy' is
connected with the object 'boy' in the environment, and
b.
Whenever speakers learn a sentence, they also
learn at the same time the interconnections between the words.
The problem of grammaticality
confounds Watson's theory and renders meaningless its capacity to meet the
criteria of length, number, and novelty. Watso n's theory, therefore, fails to
explain the basic language abilities of speakers.
3.
Staats's Word Class Association Theory,
Staat's word class association theory is the extension of Watson's
theory. In the Watson’s theory, it is the words associated to form sentences.
However, in Staat’s theory, it is the word classes related to each other. In
other words, the word classes have the relations between them. Word class is
part of speech. He stated that a sentence is formed by the association of
words. The sentence then will develop into word classes such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs and articles. Staat’s theory is powerful because the word
classes and substitution within a class. The substitution of words can have the
similar characteristics or similar word classes. However, Staats's theory
cannot explain the basic language abilities of speakers.
4.
Fris's Sentence Frame Theory,
When a sentence consists of all of the word classes, then, it is the
Fries’s Sentence Frame Theory. According to Fries’s theory, new sentences will
be produced by substituting the words within word classes. For example, "The
baby cried." which include Article + Noun + Verb word classes. However,
his theory also is inadequate because it is limitless in the multitude of
sentences which will generate or yield both grammatical and ungrammatical
strings happen and there are not differentiated.
5.
Skinner's Sentence Frame Theory.
According to Skinner (1957, p. 346), speakers learn 'standard patterns' or 'skeletal frames' as a basis for sentence composition. This is similar to Fries's theory of sentence frames except that it restricts the composition of frames to that of 'key responses', nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Knowledge of frames permits a speaker to order the key responses. Once key responses are ordered, other words may be added, e.g. 'a', ' the', 'some', and 'all' for 'quantification', and ' is', 'not' , ' like', and 'as' for 'qualification' . Thus, for example, given the key responses 'hungry' and 'man' in composing a sentence, they will be ordered on the basis of the frame Noun + Adjective as 'man' + 'hungry' and then quantified and qualified with ' the' and 'is' to yield the sentence, 'The man is hungry'. Therefore, Skinner's theory is also inadequate because his theory failed to explain the four language abilities of speakers.
sentences
Why do We Forget?
Published: 05.28
Have you ever wondered why we forget? Imagine that your brain is a big memory bank wherein you store all the things that you can possibly retrieve. However, it can be quite alarming to realize that you cannot remember names, dates, faces, and events that you wanted to carefully retain. Your brain is so complex that even the tiniest nerve can affect your pool of memories.
No one can remember everything. An essential part of the memory process is making decisions about what information is valuable to you and worth the effort to encode it. Is it really critical to spend energy encoding the name of a woman who occasionally teaches your exercise class when she is only an infrequent substitute? It might be better to choose to learn the name of your neighbor’s new baby. Most people feel very frustrated and even embarrassed when they have to say, “I’ve forgotten.” Rather than blame a faulty memory, consider instead that there are some good reasons for not remembering.
Forgetting occurs in many ways and undoubtedly for many reasons. One reason we forget is that we never stored the information we want to remember in the first place. Because we didn't pay enough attention to it, it was lost from our memory system in a matter of seconds. But even in cases where we seemingly have learned something quite well, we are sometimes unable to remember it later. Psychologists have advanced a number of reasons for this.
A poor memory is caused, then, by the memory trace not having much energy to begin with, by not being recharged or fading with the lapse of time, and by losing its energy to other memory traces. That is to say, the causes of forgetting may be grouped under the following headings: weak impression, disuse, interference and repression
1. Weak Impression
The first cause of forgetting is not properly attending to what we wish to remember. The result is that the experience does not make a strong enough impression on us.
Attention means directing mental activity towards a mental or physical object or situation. For example, when I think of something I did last week, I am attending to my memory of the event. This memory is a mental object. On the other hand, when I admire a beautiful view, I am attending to a physical object.
Attention is to the mind what the power of focusing the lens is to a camera. If the camera is not properly focused, the resulting photograph will not be clear. So a wobbly, vagrant mind does not get clear pictures and consequently finds it difficult to bring them back to memory.
Upon the clearness and truth of first impressions must depend the ease and speed of their reproduction. We cannot hope to recall past events or experiences with certainty if our perception of them is not clear and reliable.
The practical use of the law of attention is seen when we realize that it is the first step in all the higher mental processes. The art of memory is primarily the art of attention. We forget because we do not pay sufficient attention to what we wish to remember in order to imprint it firmly on the mind. A good memory, therefore, depends upon attention towhat is to be remembered. Since one cannot attend to more than one thing at once
2. Disuse
The second cause of a faulty memory is letting the trace fall into disuse, or not repeating the experience in order to refresh the memory. It is normal to forget most of what is learned within a few days after learning it — unless it is constantly revised to keep it fresh in mind. For example, a man said: 'Whenever I read a book I grasp with ease what it contains, but unfortunately after only a few days I forget almost all of it. What can I do about this?' A memory trace tends to decay with the lapse of time. For example, another man admitted: 'I have a shocking memory. Whatever I study in the morning is forgotten by evening.'
Much of what we learn is forgotten almost as soon as we have learned it. The little that remains after that is forgotten more slowly. The psychologist Ebbinghaus, who carried out the most important early work on memory, found that after one hour 56 per cent ofthe material which he had studied was forgotten; but after nine hours only a further 8 per cent had been forgotten; after two days only a further 6 per cent, and only a further 7 percent after as long as one month. In other words, about 70 per cent of the amount which was forgotten in the first month was forgotten in the first hour of that month. Consequently, it is most economical to refresh our memory about something as soon as possible afterwards, rather than to wait until some time has elapsed.21 This principle is important not only in learning but in teaching,
especially in such forms of 'teaching' as propaganda, direct-mail advertising, etc. In other words, if a person reads a sales letter, he will give it his best attention at the time but in spite of this he is likely to forget most of it quite soon afterwards. The rate of forgetting, which is rapid in the first few hours, becomes less rapid later on.
Berkomunikasi Dengan Tujuan Instruksional
Published: 05.27
Sangat penting bahwa guru dapat mengkomunikasikan tujuan instruksional mereka kepada siswa. Jika Anda adalah anggota dari American Automobile Association (AAA), lembaga itu dapat sangat membantu dalam merencanakan perjalanan. Yang harus Anda lakukan adalah memberi tahu mereka ke mana Anda ingin pergi dan mereka dapat mengumpulkan Trip Tik untuk Anda, merakit peta yang menunjukkan berbagai jalan raya dan jalan raya di seluruh Amerika Utara. Jika Anda sedang menuju ke New York ke California, mereka dapat merencanakan rute utara, rute selatan, atau a rute pusat bahwa semua akan membuat Anda berakhir di tempat yang sama. Tapi sebelum ada yang bisa memulai rute perjalanan, Anda harus memberi tahu mereka di mana Anda ingin berakhir. Dan jika Anda tidak tahu ke mana Anda pergi, Anda tidak akan tahu kapan Anda sampai di sana. Anda tidak akan tahu bahkan jika Anda tidak pernah sampai di sana!
Merencanakan unit instruksional, kursus, atau keseluruhan kurikulum, dalam banyak hal, seperti merencanakan perjalanan. Ada banyak tempat berbeda untuk dikunjungi, dan banyak cara berbeda untuk dapatkan sebagian besar dari mereka, tetapi sebelum Anda dapat mulai merencanakan bagaimana mencapai tempat yang Anda inginkan, Anda harus memutuskan di mana Anda ingin berakhir. Tujuan instruksional dan tujuan (IGOS-Instructional and goal objectives) adalah sarana untuk memperjelas keputusan itu.
Tyler (1949) mengemukakan ada empat pertanyaan mendasar yang harus dijawab: dalam mengembangkan kurikulum atau rencana pengajaran:
1. Hasil apa yang harus dicapai?
2. Pengalaman apa yang dapat diberikan yang kemungkinan besar akan mencapai hasil diatas?
3. Bagaimana pengalaman-pengalaman ini dapat diorganisasikan secara efektif?
4. Bagaimana kita dapat menentukan apakah hasil-hasil ini telah dicapai?
Gagasan menulis tujuan instruksional tentu bukan hal baru. Penulis di bidang Komunikasi telah menekankan pentingnya menentukan maksud dan tujuan seseorang sebelum bersiap untuk berbicara selama lebih dari 2.000 tahun, sejak zaman Aristoteles dan Cicero. Selama 40 tahun terakhir, metode mempersiapkan tujuan instruksional telah diajarkan kepada beberapa generasi guru selama pelatihan prajabatan mereka; sebuah praktik yang ditinggalkan sebagai mekanisme perencanaan yang berarti oleh banyak dari mereka segera setelah mereka masuk ruang kelas mereka sendiri. Bab ini akan membahas mengapa beberapa guru membenci tujuan instruksional, mengapa mereka memiliki nilai kritis, dan apa yang harus mereka komunikasikan.
Occupation Prospects for English Education Graduates
Published: 05.27
English is not a vocational major that prepares you for one particular job (like an accountant, for example). Instead, a degree in English provides you with a broad range of skills useful for any number of careers. Skills that make you a good job candidate include the ability to:
- Write and speak effectively
- Edit someone else’s writing
- Express your creativity in any number of ways (design a brochure, write a campaign letter, reorganize an office, and others)
- Learn new information quickly
- Work well with others
- Develop hypotheses, research data, and interpret and summarize data
- Organize ideas and information
- Think critically and solve problems
With these skills, English majors have achieved success in a variety of fields, including writing, editing, publishing, teaching, public relations, technical writing, paralegal and legal, marketing, consulting, business, government, museums, libraries, consulting, and more.
This post takes a look at the variety of career possibilities available to English majors. Each section explains the requirements, outlook, and salary range for this career path. Because you can do so much with a degree in English (and this chapter couldn’t cover all the possibilities in detail), the last section describes how to investigate other jobs relating to English (or careers that require skills related to English studies). There, you can explore even more potential jobs, as well as learn how and where to research more detailed information.
WRITERS
A professional writer may work for any of the following publications or organizations: newspapers, magazines, broadcast media, trade and professional publications, consumer publications, advertising agencies, government agencies, colleges and universities, not-for-profits, and businesses. Some writers are self-employed; their career is based on freelance writing jobs or assignments with one or more publishers, and they may write essays, columns, opinion pieces, magazine articles, biographies, book reviews, and other pieces for publication.
Most creative writers, for example, are freelance writers and are self-employed. For this type of writing, the writer creates original fiction and nonfiction texts for books, magazines, trade journals, newspapers, newsletters, radio and TV, and advertisements. If you want to be a creative writer, you might write short stories, novels, poems, song lyrics, plays, screenplays, essays, columns, or other work for publication. You may be commissioned to write these works (know in advance that the work will be published), or you may write the work and then seek to have it published.
Freelance writers usually have a good deal of writing experience that they got working for publications or companies. So although it’s not a career you may be able to pursue immediately, it is one that you can aim and work toward as you gain more and more writing experience. As another possibility, you may find work as a technical writer. In fact, this field provides many new opportunities for writing. The next section discusses this type of writing in more detail.
TECHNICAL WRITERS
As mentioned, the best opportunities for a writing career are in technology. Technology is becoming increasingly more complex and more prevalent. Also, new information and products are constantly being introduced. These factors create a demand for technical writers who can teach people about products and how to use them or who can take complex information (scientific or medical information, for example) and convey it to a lay audience.
As a technical writer, you may research and write about products. Types of publications you might create include user manuals, catalogs and parts lists, training materials, marketing information, and so on. You might also write proposals requesting funds and facilities for research.
If you want to pursue a career in this arena, you need a degree plus some specialized technical knowledge depending on the field in which you want to work. For example, you might specialize in science, law, medicine, engineering, business, or computers by taking classes in these subjects, getting a minor in these fields, or pursuing relevant work experience.
EDITORS
In addition to pursuing a writing career, some English majors look for work as an editor. Editors work for newspapers, magazines, book publishers, business and not-for-profit organizations, advertising agencies, public relations firms, radio and TV stations, and government agencies. Some small and many large companies have in-house newsletters and other materials that require an editor or writer.
What do editors do? To start, they assess the needs of their particular audience and then plan and create publications based on these needs. They may use in-house writers or hire outside writers and negotiate contracts. Or if the publication has a writing staff (for example, a newspaper or magazine), the editor may assign articles or assignments. Once the work is received, the editor reviews, edits, checks facts, and rewrites, as needed. Finally, the editor may oversee the production of the final product (book, magazine issue, newspaper, and so on).
An English major is a good fit for a career as an editor. If you want to pursue newspaper or magazine editing, you may also consider getting a certificate or minor in journalism. For all editing work, seek out experiences working as a writer or editor
JOURNALISM CAREERS
If you enjoy writing, you may purse a journalism career, working as a news analyst, reporter, or correspondent. These professionals gather information, and then write stories or articles for publication. For radio or TV, news analysts (also called newscasters or news anchors) collect information from various sources and then broadcast the story on the radio or TV (either live or through a videotape). Often, news analysts specialize in a particular news area, such as sports, weather, investigative reporting, and so on.
Reporters look into breaking news stories that affect the local, state, national, or international scene. By following up on tips, interviewing witnesses or participants, taking pictures, and visiting sites, they organize the facts into a coherent story and then write an article for a written publication or air their reports on the radio or TV. Some reporters have a specific area (or beat) that they cover, including health, politics, sports, entertainment, science, business, technology, and others.
Working conditions for a journalism career can be stressful. Often, this type of work requires travel, as well as being on call to handle breaking news. Working hours vary and don’t follow the traditional 9-to-5 schedule. For example, some TV stations broadcast news 24/7, and the reporting staff needs to be available at all hours and work long hours. Newspaper deadlines are often late at night. Meeting these deadlines also adds to the stress factor.
Although most employers in this field prefer a degree in journalism, English majors may also be considered for these jobs. In addition to English, you may consider taking journalism classes, getting a minor in journalism, or getting a journalism certificate. For TV and radio, consider specializing in broadcast journalism. As a student, look for practical experience working on a school newspaper, magazine, Web site, or other publication. Also, consider internships or summer jobs working for a news organization.
ADVERTISING COPYWRITER
In addition to public relations, advertising is another area that provides opportunities for English majors. The skills of writing and speaking effectively, as well as the ability to integrate images, are key. You may consider any number of careers within advertising. Usually, you start with an entry-level job, possibly as an assistant or advertising copywriter. As you gain experience, you may advance to other careers, including advertising or promotion manager or marketing manager.
An advertising copywriter creates ads for radio and TV to promote the sale of goods or services. In this job, the copywriter starts by consulting with sales media and marketing representatives to learn about the product or service. Collectively, this group may brainstorm to come up with ideas about a particular advertisement or campaign. For example, they may think about the style, format, medium for the ad, and other factors.
The copywriter then writes, edits, and proofreads the text for the advertisement and may also make suggestions for the art, photographs, or illustrations to be included. The copywriter might also help estimate production costs, oversee work done by outside contractors, and prepare a marketing program. In addition to writing the ads, a copywriter needs to keep current on trends in advertising and consumer buying.
The following list of other career possibilities:
- Account executive
- Actor/actress
- Analyst
- Artist
- Bank officer
- Biographer
- Book critic
- Bookstore manager
- Business manager
- Circulation assistant
- City manager
- Columnist
- Comedian
- Comedy writer
- Communications manager
- Congressional aide
- Crossword puzzle writer
- Curator
- Curriculum planner
- Desktop publisher
- Director
- Documentation specialist
- Editor, film/video
- Editorial assistant
- Educational program specialist
- Entertainment agent
- ESL teacher
- Fact checker
- Fashion merchandiser
- Fundraiser
- Greeting card writer
- Hotel manager
- Human resources corporate communication
- Human resources trainer
- Insurance agent
- Interpreter and translator
- Lawyer
- Legal assistant
- Literary agent
- Lobbyist
- Magazine writer
- Manuscript reader
- Market research
- Media planner
- Narrator
- Novelist
- Paralegal
- Personnel manager
- Playwright
- Poet
- Politician
- Pollster
- Product manager
- Proofreader
- Public information specialist
- Publicity assistant
- Research assistant
- Sales representative
- Script reader
- Singer
- Special events coordinator
- Speech writer
- Sports writer
- Technical consultant
- Travel writer
- Video scriptwriter/producer
- Web content manager
- Web developer
Reference
Shelley O’Hara. 2005. What Can You Do with a Major in English Major. Wiley Publishing, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey